Hi welcome to Taiga Bonzai, in this article we discuss poisonous lepidoptera with arguably the Monarch Butterfly Danaus plexippus and Pipevine Swallowtail Battus philenor being the most well known.

Introduction – although the Monarch and Pipevine butterflies and a large variety of moths are toxic. It is the larval stage (caterpillars) where they are most dangerous to humans, animals and a vast variety of trees, shrubs and horticulture in general, due to the huge devastation they cause.

Caterpillars of most species eat plant material (often leaves), but not all; some (about 1%) eat insects, and some are even cannibalistic. Others feed on animal products. For example, clothes moths feed on wool, and horn moths feed on the hooves and horns of dead ungulates.

Caterpillars are typically voracious feeders and many of them are among the most serious of agricultural pests. In fact, many moth species are best known in their caterpillar stages, because of the damage they cause to fruits and other agricultural produce. Whereas the moths are obscure and do no direct harm.

Etymology – caterpillars have soft bodies that can grow rapidly between moults. Their size varies between species and instars (moults) from as small as 1 millimetre (0.039 in) up to 14 centimetres (5.5 in). Some larvae of the order Hymenoptera (ants, bees, and wasps) can appear like the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera. Such larvae are mainly seen in the sawfly suborder.

However while these larvae superficially resemble caterpillars, they can be distinguished by the presence of prolegs on every abdominal segment. An absence of crochets or hooks on the prolegs. (these are present on lepidopteran caterpillars) One pair of prominent ocelli on the head capsule, and an absence of the upside-down Y-shaped suture on the front of the head.

Lepidopteran caterpillars can be differentiated from sawfly larvae by: the numbers of pairs of pro-legs; sawfly larvae have 6 or more pairs while caterpillars have a maximum of 5 pairs. The number of stemmata or simple eyes, sawfly larvae have only two, while caterpillars usually have twelve. (six each side of the head)

Defence – many animals feed on caterpillars as they are rich in protein. As a result, caterpillars have evolved various means of defence. These include defence against physical conditions such as cold, hot or dry environmental conditions. Some Arctic species like Gynaephora groenlandica have special basking and aggregation behaviours apart from physiological adaptations to remain in a dormant state.

Appearance – of a caterpillar can often repel a predator, its markings and certain body parts can make it seem poisonous, or bigger in size and thus threatening, or non-edible. Some types of caterpillars are indeed poisonous or distasteful and their bright colouring warns predators of this. Others may mimic dangerous caterpillars although they are not actually dangerous.

Many caterpillars are cryptically coloured and resemble the plants on which they feed. An example of caterpillars that use camouflage for defence is the species Nemoria arizonaria (shown below). If the caterpillars hatch in the spring and feed on oak catkins they appear green. If they hatch in the summer they appear dark coloured, like oak twigs.

Chemical defences – more aggressive self-defence measures have evolved in some caterpillars. These measures include having spiny bristles or long fine hair-like setae with detachable tips. These cause serious consequences as described in the previous article. (Unseen invasion 4 the ‘Pine knot-horn‘ or ‘Maritime pine borer‘ )  

Moreover, venom which is among the most potent defensive chemicals in any animal is produced by the South American silk moth genus Lonomia. Its venom is an anticoagulant powerful enough to cause a human to hemorrhage to death. In Brazil 354 cases were reported between 1989 and 2005 with lethality ranging up to 20% with death caused most often by intracranial hemorrhage. This chemical is being investigated for potential medical applications.

These toxic species including the Cinnabar moth Tyria jacobaeae and monarch Danaus plexippus caterpillars, usually advertise themselves with the danger colours of red, yellow and black. Any predator that attempts to eat a caterpillar with an aggressive defence mechanism will learn and avoid future attempts.

Caterpillars cause much damage, mainly by eating leaves. Such damage is enhanced by monocultural farming practices, especially where the caterpillar is specifically adapted to the host plant under cultivation. For example, the Cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera is a major pest of cotton Gossypium spp. maize, Zea mays, pulses, Fabaceae tomatoes, Solanum lycopersicum and sorghum bicolour throughout most of the world.

This species of moth is a recent arrival in the Americas where it is rapidly spreading. It has documented resistance to 49 pesticides and is one of the most polyphagous and cosmopolitan pest species. Caterpillars have been the target of pest control through the use of pesticides, biological control and agronomic practices.

Such approaches are defeated over time via the evolution of resistance mechanisms in the insects, many species have become resistant to pesticides. Until next time, BW, Nik.

Hi, and welcome to Taiga Bonzai, in this post we continue our journey bringing to light the catastrophic failures of mankind’s idiosyncratic actions.

Introduction – according to the Botanical Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) and its network of 500 member organisations, there are 60,065 species of trees in the world; Many are rare and threatened with extinction.

If we multiply the number of tree species with the number of known pests and disease all with different triggers, the statistics would not only be bewildering but also incomprehensible. Here we highlight more increasing problems the world has to face beginning with a few examples of the many deadly diseases, for which at this juncture there is little or no control.

Disease – Armillaria Root, according to Guido Schnabel of the Clemson University School of Agricultural, Forest and Environmental Sciences. “Armillaria root rot caused by the fungus Armillaria tabescens wreaks havoc on rootstocks, killing young and old peach and cherry trees before spreading to neighbouring trees.” “Between 1987 and 1992 Armillaria root rot caused an estimated $3.86 million to the peach industry and between 2000 and 2002, more than $1.5 million in damage to the Georgia peach industry.”

The first symptoms of an Armillaria infection are chlorotic leaves, stunted growth and sudden collapse of shoots. An obvious sign that infection is there due to the presence of clusters of mushrooms around the base of an infected plant. Fungi sprouting from an A. mellea infection are honey-coloured to dark brown and have a domed cap. “Depending on species, the mushrooms may or may not have an annulus around the stalk or caps that are more disc-shaped.”

This devastating disease can be caused by other Armillaria species including, A. mellea a the primary pathogen in northern states causing premature peach tree decline. The potential for significant annual losses in Michigan, is due to the predominant fungus A. ostoyoe found in tart cherry orchards. There is no ‘silver bullet’ solution to protect trees and Armillaria infections have taken many prime orchard sites out of production causing a huge loss of revenue.

Anthracnose – high on the list of devastation is widespread and considered an important disease in most countries. It is caused by a group of fungi in the genus Colletotrichum, that attacks leaves, twigs, flowers and fruits of a great number of tree and shrubs.

Apple scab is a common disease of apple and crab apple tree varieties, as well as Mountain ash Sorbus and pear. It is caused by a fungus Venturia inaequalis that infects leaves and fruit, leaving the latter unsuitable for consumption. Leaf spots are olive green at first, later turning dark brown to black. Infected fruit turns colour in a similar fashion, ending up brown, corky and deformed.

Thousand canker disease – affects many plants including walnuts Juglans sp. It is mainly found in the Western United States however, black walnuts trees in Tennessee were found to be infected in the summer of 2020. It is vectored by walnut twig beetles Pityophthorus juglandis and forms small cankers around their galleries.

As time progresses these small cankers coalesce to girdle branches and stems, trees can be infected for years before symptoms become visible for example. Foliage in the upper branches of declining trees wilt and become yellow. Once a tree begins to decline it is often dead within a few years and at present there are no chemical management solutions to control the disease.

Thus far we have given examples (albeit in brief) of the devastation caused by some of the many thousands of insects and disease. Adding more examples would probably substantiate the argument further, but this task has already been accomplished. In the book ‘Taiga Bonzai – Simplifying The art’ (Revised Edition), where 2 chapters reveal extensive information on these subjects, c.13 concentrates on ‘Pest and Disease’ and c.14 discusses ‘Toxicity’.

We now turn our attention to plants required for our consumption namely fruit and vegetables starting with one of the world’s oldest fruits the humble apple. The bureaucracy over production and the controversy surrounding it including the diseases that attack various species of this particular fruit.

The apple – Malus domestica, its ancestor Malus sieversii originated in Central Asia 4 thousand years ago. Today there are 7,500 apple varieties throughout the world – 2,500 of which are grown in the United States. In the 2019/2020 crop year, China was the leading producer of apples, it’s production amounted to 41 million metric tons. The European Union came in second place with approximately 11.48 million metric tons.

The UK has been producing apples since the Roman occupation (AD 43 to AD 410) however, production is now in serious decline due to bureaucracy and trade problems with the EU. Hence growers are given payments to burn their orchards.

Natural England and the National Trust claimed 60% of England’s orchards had disappeared since the 1950s and have launched a £500,000 project aimed at halting the decline. The crisis has been even worse in some areas such as Devon, which has lost almost 90% of its orchards.

According to David Bullock, the head of nature conservation at the National Trust, “Traditional orchards have been disappearing at an alarming rate. We are in real danger of losing these unique habitats.” (https://www.theguardian.com April 2009)

The orchard – apple trees need space to grow, dwarf varieties require a minimum of 5m, standard trees need a distance of 9 to 11m. But this distance is inadequate because, as the trees mature they spread out, thus the risk of cross contamination from bacterium and fungal spores increases.

In 2017 the total area harvested in the world for apples was 4,933,841 hectares. But, apples are not the only fruit produced, other varieties include apricot, pear, peach, plum and damson. Hence the land mass required increases – these varieties predominantly cultivars are also susceptible to attack, thus the orchard becomes the playground for disease.

Such diseases include: Fire Blight a contagious disease affecting apples, pears, and some other members of the family Rosaceae. It is a serious concern to apple and pear producers and is believed to be indigenous to North America, from where it spread world-wide.

Powdery mildew Podosphaera leucotricha a fungus that forms a dense white fungal growth (mycelium) on the host tissue affecting leaves, buds and shoots. Black Rot and FrogEye Leaf Spot Botryosphaeria obtusa attack fruit, leaves and bark of apple trees. Phytophthora Rot a soil-borne fungal disease by the pathogen Phytophthora sojae causes seed rot and attacks roots and stems; trees infected by such pathogens are usually destroyed.

However, there are apple tree varieties that are said to be disease resistant for example, Liberty, Freedom, Dorsett Golden, Enterprise, Goldrush, Pristine, Arkansas Black and Williams Pride which are American cultivars. European apple trees include, Topaz, Herefordshire Russet and Otava, but can the claims of being disease resistant to all insects and pathogens be substantiated – in short the answer is probably not.

Arguably much depends on a particular climate zone; arid, humid, wet and cold. Moreover, these zones harbour other pests for example, the Round headed apple tree borer, European red mites, Red banded and oblique banded leaf rollers, Rosy aphids, Woolly aphids, Green fruit worms, Leafhoppers and Japanese beetles. Until next time, BW, Nik.

Hi welcome to Taiga Bonzai, in this post we look at the points of view of others whom have various opinions on how to tackle the ever increasing problem of pests and disease. However, the course of action taken by individuals, communities and/or sovereign nations, results in stiff opposition and the threat of sanctions. Due to bureaucracy and petty mindedness.

Introduction – thus far we have highlighted the many factors responsible for the present situation, that we now face all of which are of our own making. The financial cost of it all to date has been phenomenal and will continue to rise exponentially. Meeting our own needs without compromising the ability of future generations, will be difficult; bringing us to the point of no return.

United Nations FAO – at a conference in Rome 3rd April 2019, Bukar Tijani assistant director general for the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) Consumer Protection Department stated that. “With increased trade and travel, the risks of plant pests spreading into new areas across borders is now higher than ever before. Each day we witness a shocking number of threats to the well-being of our plants and by extension to our health, environment and economy.”

The FAO estimates that annually between 20 to 40 percent of global crop production is lost to pests. Each year plant diseases cost the global economy around $220 billion and invasive insects around $70 billion. “Many farmers and governments grapple with warding off highly destructive pests and diseases that are – on top of everything else – also new to them. The International Plant Protection Convention IPPC provides them with the tools and knowledge to keep their plants healthy and prevent pests from jumping borders.” added Tijani.

New IPPC standards adopted – 1. fumigation methods, this is in response to growing concerns over fumigants that can be harmful to human health and the environment. The standard requirements for temperature, duration, fumigants and quantity have been set.

2. Diagnostics protocols that describe procedures and methods for the official diagnosis of six pests. Including the oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis and Xylella fastidiosa, ensuring a correct diagnosis is essential to catalyse rapid actions to manage the pests.

B. dorsalis has affected trees such as avocado, banana, guava and mango in at least 65 countries. In Africa, import trade bans due to oriental fruit fly infestations cause annual losses of around $2 billion. Xylella fastidiosa is a deadly bacteria that attacks economically important crops such as olive, citrus, plum trees and grapevines.

Since 2015, it’s been rapidly spreading from the Americas to Europe and Asia. Once the disease infiltrates a plant, it is there to stay, it starves the plant of water until the plant dies or becomes too weak to grow fruit.

X. fastidiosa costs $104 million per year in wine losses in California and in Italy the bacteria has led to the decline of 180,000 hectares of olive groves, destroying many centuries-old trees. A loss of €390 million over three years. X. fastidiosa constitutes a threat not only to Italy but to all the Mediterranean region’s economy.

X. fastidiosa is not known to be in the UK however, there have been outbreaks of the disease in mainland Europe in France, Italy and Spain. Portugal confirmed its first case in 2019 on lavender. Hence, the UK Government is concerned on how to prevent the disease being accidentally brought into the country on imported plants. In 2020 Lord Framlingham a Conservative peer asked the Government what the UK’s regulations are regarding X. fastidiosa.

UK regulations – measures were to strengthen the protection of plants from certain pests and diseases, including Xylella. They were made under article 52 of the EU Plant Health Regulation. Allowing the UK to take additional temporary national measures, providing they inform the European Commission and put forward a technical case to request EU measures against a specific pest. But those measures have not or will not be introduced in time to mitigate the risk concerned.

Moreover, the UK Government has argued that current EU emergency measures on Xylella do not address risks highlighted in the UK’s pest risk analysis on the disease.

In particular, it is not clear if or when the EU emergency measures will be reviewed to address these risks and ensure a greater degree of assurance of disease freedom. In relation to plants of those species being moved in the EU and introduced from third countries. As such, there remains an unacceptable level of pest risk and this instrument introduces national measures under article 52, in the absence of EU requirements.

The European Commission’s response – on 4 June 2020, the EU said that it informed the UK the new national measures. “That go beyond the existing requirements, are not supported by most recent scientific justification and are disproportionate.” It stated that the UK “should amend it’s official control regulations of 2019, by removing the amendments concerning X. fastidiosa and Ceratocystis platani which were made to those regulations by the UK in 2020.”

On 19 June 2020, Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) stated that the UK disagreed with the European Commission’s conclusions and that it was disappointed. “The opportunity has not been taken to extend the UK measures across the EU, providing enhanced protections for the EU’s member states.” Defra argued “that the biosecurity threat regarding the pests had not changed and the rationale for introducing stronger requirements remained.”

The department said it continued to encourage stakeholders and industry to “employ risk management practices which maintain the robust protection and assurance that the Defra regulations provide.” 

Defra also stated that The Animal and Plant Health Agency and the devolved administrations will continue to carry out intensive inspections of imported plants. Taking account of risk factors such as origin, presence of insect vectors and suspect symptoms. “We will keep the need for any further actions under review in light of the ongoing risk situation, including developments in the EU and the results of our own surveillance.”

The Royal Horticulture Society (RHS) is also in agreement, plant health is increasingly under threat. Climate change and human activities have altered ecosystems, reducing biodiversity and creating new niches where pests and diseases can thrive. At the same time, international travel and trade has tripled in volume in the last decade. The result is that pests and diseases can quickly spread around the world causing great damage to horticulture, crops and the environment.

New statutory controls on importing plants and plant products into the UK to safeguard plant health. “Meaning that plant material entering the UK will require a phytosanitary certificate (PC); the EU plant passport is no longer valid in the UK.” 

The U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE – (USDA) state that world trade has significantly increased over the years to meet the growing demand and at this moment in time, America is the only country to import more than it exports.

USDA researchers Michael Livingston, Craig Osteen and Donna Roberts argue “That this increase in agricultural imports raise the risk of inadvertently introducing foreign pests and diseases.” which has been proven to be the case. For example, the emerald ash borer and Asian long horned beetle introduced in the 1990’s are creating serious damage to trees in the Northeast and Great Lakes States.

More recently Ralstonia solanacearum, a bacterial pathogen that damages potatoes, eggplant, tomatoes and other horticultural products was detected on greenhouse geraniums imported from Kenya and Guatemala. “The cost of foreign pests and diseases can also include the temporary loss of export markets, such as when Japan, Korea and other countries suspended imports of U.S. beef when bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) was detected in an imported cow in December 2003.”

Studies by the National Plant Board, the Government Accountability Office, the Office of Technology Assessment and others, report that foreign pests and diseases cause billions of dollars of economic losses to U.S. agriculture each year, while also adversely affecting ecosystem values and services.

These cost estimates include sizable public expenditures, including emergency funding to address new pest or disease threats and outbreaks. Today, 21 Federal agencies are responsible for some aspect of managing foreign pests and diseases in the United States.

USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has by far, the leading role accounting for about $9 out of every $10 that the Federal Government spends annually on prevention and control of foreign pests and diseases. Annual expenditures for APHIS programs ranged from $1.1 to $1.5 billion between 2003 and 2007, including emergency expenditures for programs such as increased BSE surveillance in 2004-06 and the introduction of import bans.

In evaluating such bans, economists try to measure the benefits of imports against the management production market and/or resource costs that might be associated with an outbreak of a disease or pest. Studies show that this varies on a case-by-case basis. Import bans have reduced total welfare in some cases, because the cost of disease establishment was out weighed by the consumer benefits from imports.

For example, APHIS estimated that the annual net benefits of replacing a long standing ban on imports of Mexican avocados with more targeted phytosanitary measures totalled about $70 million. Providing analysis support for USDA’s decision to grant Mexico full access to the U.S. market in 2007.

A recent study by an ERS economist, which examined options for policies to reduce the risk of entry of the Mediterranean fruit fly, (medfly) illustrates how economic analysis can inform public decision making. The medfly is a serious pest for many fruit and vegetable crops and is known to exist in 65 foreign countries. (hereafter referred to as quarantine countries)

APHIS allows imports of fresh produce from these countries only if they have been treated to eliminate medfly larvae. Currently, eight treatments are approved for the medfly. One of the most widely used is cold treatment, under which produce imported for fresh consumption must be refrigerated according to specific schedules (temperature-duration combinations) before allowed entry into U.S. markets.

In the next article we look at how other nations are dealing with the problems of pests and disease. Until next time, BW, Nik.

Hi welcome to Taiga Bonzai, in this article we continue our research on new plant diseases be they mutational strains from existing ones or completely new.

Introduction – Syzygium buxifolium is one of the most sensational evergreen flowering easy care indoor bonsai tree variety and is one of the more hardy species. It is noted for its sensational soft cream flowers with long central stamens. The plant has other names including, Fish-scale bush, Eugenia microphylla, Eugenia sinensis, Syzygium somae, Eugenia pyxophylla, Syllysium buxifolium, Box-leaved syzygium.

However, contrary to popular belief this species is not as hardy as one is lead to believe. Because it is prone to attack from the fungal pathogen Austropuccinia psidii, which is found all over the globe. A rust fungus with a wide and expanding host range within the Myrtaceae, with over 440 host species currently known. Like many rusts, urediniospores of A. psidii can be wind-dispersed over long distances.

It has spread quickly once established in new countries, including Jamaica (MacLachlan, 1938), Hawaii (Uchida and Loope, 2009), Australia (Carnegie and Cooper, 2011; Pegg et al., 2014) and New Caledonia (DAVAR Nouvelle-Calédonie, 2014).

In May 2024, bright yellow pustules were observed on the stems and leaves of a box leaf eugenia (Syzygium buxifolium) plant, sold as an indoor bonsai at a Swiss branch of a large European garden retailer. Four additional branches of the same garden retailer were thereafter visited and one diseased S. buxifolium plant was collected from each. The total number of diseased plants at each branch was not systematically assessed.

Upon detection of A. psidii, all infected plants were removed from sale and destroyed. Details of how long the plants were on sale or how many were sold are unavailable.

The risk of an outbreak in Switzerland is considered low due to unsuitable climatic conditions and the absence of native host species. However, the retailer’s European wide distribution network poses a phytosanitary risk, particularly in regions like Italy where susceptible native species and favourable climates exist.

This is the first report of A. psidii causing rust disease both in Europe and on S. buxifolium. The finding emphasizes the phytosanitary risks associated with the international plant trade. Although A. psidii was removed from the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) Alert List in 2003 (EPPO, 2003), it remains a significant concern in certain areas.

For example, the pathogen is listed on the UK Plant Health Risk Register and subject to statutory action to prevent its establishment and spread. The detection of A. psidii in retail is concerning, especially given its potential impact on species such as common myrtle, native to the European Maquis shrubland, and the economically important Eucalyptus genus.

Ornamental Eucalyptus plants were located near the infected sporulating bonsai plants in the garden centre, though their susceptibility to A. psidii was not assessed. The infected bonsai plants were traced to a nursery in the Netherlands, as indicated by the plant passport registration number.

The introduction of A. psidii via the plant trade could serve as reservoir for the pathogen and be highly detrimental in non-native habitats. The expanded host range and recent interception within the EPPO region have led the Panel on Phytosanitary Measures to re-add A. psidii to the EPPO Alert List (EPPO, 2024).

Early symptoms included red-purple spots on leaves and shoots, progressing to bright yellow uredinia. Older lesions turned brown with sub-angular margins, causing petiole and shoot deformation, occasionally leading to leaf and twig dieback.

Microscopy confirmed the presence of pyriform to spherical, echinate urediniospores (16–24 × 13–20 µm; no teliospores were detected. The host and morphological information suggested that the rust was caused by Austropuccinia psidii (Beenken, 2017).

To verify the identification, DNA was extracted from all diseased plants and the ITS2-LSU region was sequenced using rust-specific primers Rust2inv, LRust1R, LRust2 and LR6 (Beenken et al., 2012). The sequences obtained were identical to GenBank Accession No. OR082910 (A. psidii from Syzygium jambos).

Four of the five plants sampled were confirmed to be infected with A. psidii. Using four microsatellite markers (PpSSR012, PpSSR014, PpSSR018, PpSSR087), the strains were further identified as belonging to the pandemic biotype associated with the emergence of myrtle rust on various hosts across different geographic regions (Stewart et al., 2018).

The sequences were submitted to GenBank (PQ039749–PQ039752) and preserved plant material was deposited in ETH Zurich (ZTMyc66432). According to (Langrell et al., 2003) “Viable spores have been detected on clothing and personal effects following visits to rust-affected plantations, and this is a viable pathway for dispersal.”

Furthermore, there are several instances of (accidental) long-distance movement of A. psidii on diseased plants, both within and between continents. (Loope et al., 2007; Kawanishi et al., 2009; Carnegie and Cooper, 2011; Zambino and Nolan, 2012).

Under sub-optimal conditions, the rust can remain un-symptomatic within plants for more than a month. (Carnegie and Lidbetter, 2012) This combination of wide host range and ease of long-distance dispersal make A. psidii a successful invasive pathogen.

Pathogenicity tests were conducted on S. buxifolium and common myrtle (Myrtus communis), a susceptible host native to Europe (Paap et al., 2023). A spore suspension (4 × 10⁶ spores/ml with 0.05% Tween 20) was sprayed onto plants.

After five days, brown discolouration and lesions appeared on both hosts, followed by uredinia development 11 days post-inoculation completing the disease cycle. The identity of the pathogen as A. psidii was confirmed by microscopy and DNA sequencing. The pathogenicity tests included a control treatment for both hosts where plants were sprayed with 0.05% Tween 20 solution without spores, and no symptoms developed on these plants.

Severe impact on a range of Myrtaceae has been recorded in amenity plantings, commercial plantations and the native environment. A. psidii was first identified as an invasive pathogen in the 1930s when it caused extensive damage to allspice (Pimenta dioica) plantations in Jamaica (Smith, 1935; MacLachlan, 1938).

A. psidii has been identified as a quarantine risk for some time in many countries including Australia (Australian Quarantine Service, 1985 Grgurinovic et al., 2006), South Africa (Grgurinovic et al., 1998) and New Zealand (Kriticos and Leriche, 2008).

The scientists who did the major research on this article that was first published 17 December 2024 are as follows. B. Ruffner, L. Beenken, Q. Kupper, J. Mittelstrass, P. Schuler, J. E. Stewart, J. R. Ibarra Caballero, R. Winiger, S. Prospero. https://doi.org/10.1002/ndr2.70011

In the next article on this subject we continue our research be they mutational strains from existing ones or completely new, because this information is up to date and important for horticulturists. Until next time, BW, Nik.